Dietetics By B Srilakshmi Pdf Download

Nutrition is the science that interprets the interaction of food in relation to maintenance, growth, health and disease of an organism. The history of nutrition science and dietetics can be traced back as far as history of civilization across the world. The food habits, cooking and food processing have been evolved with cultural development of human beings. The ancient physicians from Greek, Hippocrates, Galen, Plato, Chinese civilization and Indian physician of Ayurveda like Charak and Sushruta have duly recognized the importance of diet and dietetics along with physical activity in health and management of various disorders.Although the advancement in nutrition science has added the discovery of various micronutrients and fortified food substances, still a large number of populations worldwide is suffering from disorders of malnutrition, food-borne diseases, neurotoxins and other non-communicable diseases due to wrong cooking, storage, packaging practices and intake of food in wrong combination. Ayurveda has advocated that to get the optimum benefits from the consumed food (Aahara), people should give due consideration to their psychosomatic constitution (Prakriti), state of digestive power (Agni), age, dietary rules, nature and combination of food etc.It is very surprising fact that scientific development of nutrition science was started in between 18th and 19th century, but the researchers and academicians working in the field of nutrition and medicinal health science have not incorporated the valuable, time tested knowledge of Ayurveda, which could be applied for development of nutrition science, and will be helpful in treatment of diseases and maintenance of health too.

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Historical Perspectives of Nutrition Science: Insights

from Ayurveda

Veena, Vandana Verma* , Sangeeta Gehlot

Department of Kriya Sharir, Faculty of Ayurveda, IMS, BHU, Varanasi – 221005, Uttar Pradesh,

India; vandana.verma04@gmail.com

*Author for correspondence

Journal of natural remedies

Abstract:

Nutrition is the science that interprets the interaction of food in relation to maintenance, growth, health and disease of an

organism. The history of nutrition science and dietetics can be traced back as far as history of civilization across the world.

The food habits, cooking and food processing have been evolved with cultural development of human beings. The ancient

physicians from Greek, Hippocrates, Galen, Plato, Chinese civilization and Indian physician of Ayurveda like Charak and

Sushruta have duly recognized the importance of diet and dietetics along with physical activity in health and management

of various disorders.

               

substances, still a large number of populations worldwide is suffering from disorders of malnutrition, food-borne diseases,

neurotoxins and other non-communicable diseases due to wrong cooking, storage, packaging practices and intake of food

in wrong combination. AyurvedaAahara), people

PrakritiAgni), age, dietary

rules, nature and combination of food etc.

th th century, but

     

the valuable, time tested knowledge of Ayurveda, which could be applied for development of nutrition science, and will be

helpful in treatment of diseases and maintenance of health too.

Keywords: Aahara, Ayurveda , Dietecs, Nutraceucal, Nutrigenomics, Nutrion

DOI: 10.18311/jnr/2019/22962

1. Introduction

Food is the basic need for all human being and intake of

balanced diet is essential for proper growth, development

and to remain healthy. e food habits, cooking and

food processing have been evolved along with cultural

development and evolution of human beings across the

world, which could be seen in dierent ancient civilizations.

e early period human was known as hunters and

gatherers, who have taken food as raw meat of animal

until the starting of agriculture i.e. approximately 1500

BC. e invention of re developed culinary, processing,

quality of food, storage and preservation of food.

e word dietetics was noted in the early writings of

Hippocrates, Plato and Galen. e Greek term 'Diaita'

means 'way of life' and the term 'diet' was used in this

sense in treatises and handbooks until recent times in

Europe1 . All the ancient physicians either from Greek

or Ayurveda physicians of India believed that diet

is the best way to treat a disease and intervention in

the nutritional habits of the patient was a method of

treatment. According to them, the regulation of diet is

33

Verma. et al.

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the physician's job par excellence. Although not ocially

recognized as a profession, dietetics and nutrition has

constituted a branch of the medical art since the time of

the ancient Greeks2–4 .

Advent of modern technologies is not only helpful

to discover nutrients but opened up new chapters in the

history of nutrition and dietetics. Aer the discoveries

of nutrients, it was realized that food is not only for

quieting the hunger, but it is also required in proper

quantity for nourishment of tissues and to remain

healthy3 .

Now a day's culinary, modes of public dining,

dietary pattern and lifestyle are being changed leading

to obesity and other non-communicable diseases. It

can be reduced with systematic nutrition educational

interventions on a massive scale. ere is a need for

adoption of healthy dietary guidelines, food cooking

and processing along with strong emphasis on regular

physical exercise. In this paper an attempt has been made

to showcase and circulate the Ayurvedic knowledge

related to nutrition and dietetics to the researchers

and medical professionals. So that, the science of

nutrition may be enriched as well as deciency and

over nutritional disorders can be managed in a better

way by incorporating Ayurvedic measures of diet and

dietary regulation.

2. Aim and Objectives

To review the history of food and nutrition science and

analyze the possible contribution of Ayurveda in further

development of dietetics and nutrition science in view of

management of diseases and preservation of health in a

better way.

3. Materials and Methods

A comprehensive literature search was done on the

concept of food and nutrition, from standard text

books of ancient Veda, Ayurveda and nutrition science,

research articles, dierent online journals of standard

e-databases like PubMed, PubMed Central and Google

Scholar were searched to get relevant research papers

related to the topics.

4. Review and Discussion

4.1 Scenario of Food and Dietetics

Literature reviews suggest that over the long period of

time, there were many changes in the way humans have

lived. e earliest humans were hunters and gatherers in

their life, who took meat (richest source of protein) of

animal as diet. e history of pre-farming era suggests

(approximately 1500 B.C) that no or very little; wheat

(bread/pasta), rice, milk, cheese, butter etc. was available

in the human diet5 . e people of early civilizations

settled near rivers to fulll the needed water for drinking

and for their crops6 . Previous studies have also suggested

that with the advent of agriculture as an outcome of

civilization, man acquired the ability to cultivate what he

wanted, as by now he was inuenced to some extent by

the selection of the food that he wanted to eat. Homo

erectus was known for use of stone tools and ability to

make re7 . e invention of re motivate people to eat

cooked food then happened regular improvements in

culinary, processing of food, and better quality of food,

storage and preservation.

e selection of foods best suited for promoting good

health has been found out by trial and error by continued

use. Use of milks of dierent mammals as food for infants

has been practiced from very early times8 . Ayurveda has

also described in detail about the classication of food

on the bases of their origin, properties, comprehensive

description of cereals, pulses, vegetables, fruits, dierent

nutritional and medicinal uses of milk obtained from

various animals, non-vegetarian diet, properties of

various types of esh (Mamsa ) obtained from dierent

animals, shes.

4.2 Food's Description from Ancient to

Present Era

4.2.1 Pre Vedic Era-Ancient Civilizations

• Pre Harrapan phase (7500-6000 BCE) known as early

food producing era9 .

• Mohanjo-daro and Harappan civilization (2800-2500

B.C.): e description of cereals, household utensils,

water supply and drainage system in this civilization

suggest that the people of Harappan and Mohanjo-daro

have the knowledge of food and nutrition5 .

34 Historical Perspectives of Nutrition Science: Insights from Ayurveda

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• Chinese civilization has the earliest evidence of

cultivated rice, found by the Yangtze River, is

carbon-dated to 8,000 years ago10 .

4.2.2 Vedic Period (2000 BC)

Food was known as the term Ida, Andha, Parimsa and

Aahara. e food items like fruits, cereals, grains, pulses,

milk and milk products were used in this period. Diet

was associated with divine attributes and emphasized as

the "life giver".

4.2.2.1 Rigveda

Food is called as 'Anna' derived from "ad" (to eat) and

'pitu' (in the sense of nourisher). Dairying was well

developed, fermented (Soma) and alcoholic (Sura) drinks

were consumed suggesting an advanced level of food

preparations; the art of cooking, the method of cleaning

food with a sieve and grinding, food-grains viz. barley,

rice, lentils and preparation of khichadi, cake (Apupa )

etc. and the use of implements and utensils5, 11, 12 .

4.2.2.2 Shukla Yajurveda

ere is description about the sacred diet, which was

oered to the Gods with the recitation, "O forefather in

heaven may you receive the energetic milk, ghee, sugar

candy, ripen fruits and pure water oered by me"13 .

4.2.2.3 Atharvaveda

e prepared food like the rice cooked with water, ghee

and mixed with juice of soma is the diet of Brahman,

which is called "Brahmodana "14 .

4.2.3 Upanishad (800 to 400 B.C.)

• Upanishad advocated the universal dietetic regimen

in ancient civilized society. Here the teacher and

student together to pray to God, chanting "O, God we

may live together, eat together, there should not be

any hatred and egoism among us. We may enjoy the

healthy lives and live peacefully together"15 .

• Taittiriya Upanishad - e "Anna" has been

recognized as a great entity for life. Anna is known

as "Brahma" as all the animates are produced from

Anna, maintained by Anna and at the end assimilate

in the Anna 16 .

• Chandogya Upanishad laid more emphasis on purity

of food and its eects on body and mind17 .

• Manusmriti also laid more importance on food and

advocated certain psychic discipline on the part of

its user. It has been described that one should always

praise the food but not to abuse it and by seeing the

food everyone should get delighted13 .

• Yajnavalkya Smriti stated that one should think

the diet as nectar and should take it with devotion.

us, it maintains the body well and destroys the sin

(diseases)13 .

4.2.4 Mahabharata (300 B.C.)

ere had been many developments in dietetic eld. A

famous king Nala, had established a science of dietetic

named "Nalapakavidhi "13 . Dairying was well developed;

fermented (Soma) and alcoholic (Sura) drinks were also

consumed, suggesting that an advanced level of food

preparations had developed5 .

• Bhagavad-Gita (200 BCE): It dealt with the salient

characteristics of diets, which has been accepted as a

source for creation of life. In 17th chapter three types

of diet viz. Sattvika , Rajasika and Tamasika have been

dealt separately and their responses on the body have

been well recognized13 . Sattvika food denotes for

prosperity, longevity, intelligence, strength, health

and happiness, includes fruits, vegetables, legumes,

cereals and sweets. Rajasika food, signies activity,

passion and restlessness, includes hot, sour, spicy

and salty foods. Tamasika food is intoxicating and

unhealthy18 .

4.2.5 Physicians of Greek

• e name of Greek physician Podalirius is mentioned

in Homer's epic (8th Century BC) 'e Iliad', was

recognized for his special interest in dietetics3, 4 .

• Pythagoras (570 BC–495 BC) a philosopher,

mathematician, was also considered to be "the Father

of Ethical Vegetarianism". He believed that in order

to obtain the highest level of spiritual and physical

health, it was necessary to follow a lifestyle that

included a vegetarian diet which excluded meats and

other esh foods.

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• Anaxagoras (500 BC-428 BC) reasoned that

food became the human body and hence must

contain 'generative components' termed by him

'homeomerics'19 .

• Hippocrates (460-370 BC) presented his concepts on

nutrition and role of diet in the treatment of disease

in his treatise 'on diet' and many remarks of the entire

Hippocratic work (Corpus Hippocraticum) lucidly

reveals the importance of the nutritional choices in

human nosology and therapeutics. He wrote "Let

thy food be thy medicine, thy medicine be thy food,"

It was suggested that the persons who are naturally

very fat are apt to die earlier than those who are

slender"3-4, 20-21 .

• Plato (460–348 BC) suggested that the therapeutic

approach to human diseases should be made through

the regulation of diet rather than with medication,

"Wherefore one ought to control all such diseases, so

far as one has time to spare, by means of dieting rather

than irritate a fractious evil by drugging" (Timaeus

verse 89C-D)4, 20 .

• Galen (130-200 AD) prominent Greek physician,

surgeon and philosopher in the Roman Empire has

highlighted the importance of diet in maintaining

health and the treatment of diseases in his dietary

treatise "On the power of food". He was one of the

believers in diet, and said "health depends chiefly

on the choice of food." Galen insists that balance

of the four humors can be beneficially or adversely

affected by diet. He stressed the therapeutic value

of climate and a full diet for tuberculosis and

emphasized the value of milk in the treatment of

disease22 .

• Athenaeus (200-300 AD) recorded many of the

nutritional habits of the classical era of Greek

antiquity in his work entitled 'Deipnosophists'.

Boorde (16th Century) English traveller, physician

and writer wrote two short books related to health,

'Breuyary of helth and acompenyous regiment or

a dyetary of helth'. He included brief chapters on

bread, soup (Potage), meat, eggs and cheese, sh

and fowl, roots, herbs, fruits and spices and diets for

the following: Sanguine, phlegmatic, choleric and

melancholic temperaments and pestilence, fever,

gout, leprosy, consumption, palsy, madness and

dropsy20 .

4.2.6 Ayurveda Physician and Scholars: Concept

of Food and Dietetics in Ayurveda

• e scholars of Ayurveda, Atreya (1000 B.C.), Charak/

Agnivesha (400 and 500 BC), Sushruta (400 to 1000

BC), Vagbhata (600 BC), Bhava Mishra (1550 A.D.)

have given vivid description about diet, dietetics and

nutrition long ago before the discovery of nutrients

and foundation of nutrition science. A comprehensive

description of food (Aahara ) for getting proper

nutrition, prevention and management of a wide range

of disorders is found. Whatever is voluntary eaten with

mouth or ingested is called Aahara 23 . It has also been

considered as basis of life (Prana) and used in two

meanings i.e. the act of food intake and for food items.

Diet is known as important pillar in sustenance of life

and health. Ayurveda has considered food ( Aahara ) as

a chief drug (Mahaaushadha) and believes that health

and disease both are the product of nutrition. Food or

diet is an important item to provide energy and regulates

all human biological function i.e. life process, growth,

repair and maintenance24 . e principle of dietetics

and nutrition in Ayurvedic system of medicine includes

dierent classes of Aahara i.e. eating and drinking

items, principle of wholesome and unwholesome diet

(Pathyapathya), discipline of eating (Ashtha Aahar

Vidhi Visheshayatana, Dwadasha Ashana Vidhi etc .),

incompatible diet (Viruddha Aahar), the diet and

lifestyle behavior in preconceptionally and pregnancy

period (Gharbini Paricharaya), conduciveness and

unconducive diet (Satmayata and Asatmayata ), diet as

per psychosomatic constitution [Prakriti (Vata, Pitta,

Kapha)], age, diseases and their stages, therapeutic

diet, seasonal diet (Ritu), balanced diet, six Rasa

(Shadarasa ), required properties (Gunas), digestive

power (Agni ), digestive system (Kostha )24 . ese

valuable descriptions could be applied for development

of nutrition science and will be helpful in treatment of

diseases and maintenance of health too.

4.3 Classication of Food

Ayurveda has included all the components of balance

diet and described the classication of food (Aahara

Varga ), which is similar to food classication stated in

nutrition, for example – food science narrated macro

and micronutrient (carbohydrate, protein, fat, vitamins,

36 Historical Perspectives of Nutrition Science: Insights from Ayurveda

Journal of Natural Remedies | ISSN: 2320-3358 http://www.informaticsjournals.com/index.php/jnr | Vol 19 (1) | January 2019

minerals, water). Ayurvedic texts classify food as Aahara

Varga . e dierent group (Varg a ) are cereals ( Shuka ),

pulses (Shamidhanya), esh (Mansa ), vegetables

(Shaaka ), fruits ( Phal ), ginger, garlic, onion, radish, lime

(Harita ), beverages ( Madya ), milk and milk products

(Gauras ), sweet products obtained from sugarcane

(Ikashu ), oil, ghee, salt, alkali, cumin, celery, coriander,

bay leaf, ginger, pepper, hingu (Aaharaopayogi).

Adjuvant of food (Aaharaopayogi Dravya) makes food

tasty and appetizer, alleviates Vat a and Kaphadosha , foul

smell. Cereals and legumes are recommended for use

when they are one year old as new one is heavy (Guru) in

digestion while old is easy in digestion (Laghu). e crop

which comes shortly is regarded as lighter. e legumes

when dehusked and properly fried digest easily25 .

ere are many other ways of classication of diet

(Aahara):

• According to origin - animal origin (JangamDravya )

and plant origin (Sthavar Dravya ).

• According to eect - wholesome (Hitakar ) and

unwholesome (Ahitakar Aahara).

• According to use - solid (Bhakshya ), semisolid

(Lehya ), drinking ( Ashan and Paan).

• According to taste - sweet (Madhura ), sour (Amal ),

saline (Lavana), pungent (Katu), bitter (Tikta ),

astringent (Kashaya ).

• According to quality - light-heavy (Guru-Laghu ),

cold-hot (Sheeta-Ushna), unctuous-rough (Snigdha-

Ruksha), slow acting-fast acting ( Manda-Tikshana),

immobility-mobility (Sthir-Sar), so-hard (Mradu-

Kathin ), nonslimy-slimy (Vishad-Pichchila ),

smoothness-roughness (Slakshana-Khar), minute-

large (Sukshma-Sthul), solidity-uidity ( Sandra-

Drava )26 .

4.4 Wholesome and Unwholesome Diet

(Pathya Apathya)

Pathya is compatible for bodily channels and mind.

Apathya is opposite of Pathya . Wholesome food promotes

the growth of person and unwholesome food is cause of

disorders. Pathya-Apathya has opposite eects due to

the variation in dose (quantity), time, origin, action, soil,

pathology, body and Dosha 27 .

Acharya Charaka has given a list of food items which

should be and should not be taken regularly. Wholesome

food can be taken regularly are Rice variety which gets

ripened in 60 days (Shali). Vigna radiata (Mudga ), Rock

salt, Jangala Mamsa (Meat of animals of arid, desert-like

land), Punica granatum (Dadima), Seed of bamboo

tree, Phyllanthus emblica (Amalaka fruits), Hordeum

vulgare (Barley), Rain water, Milk, Ghee, Honey,

Vegetables like Capsicum annum (Chili), Chenopodium

album (Vast u k a ), Blepharis edulis (Sunisannaka ),

Leptadenia reticulata (Jivanti ), Amaranthus spinosus

(Tanduliyaka), Centella asiatica ( Mandukaparni )28 .

4.5 Unwholesome Food Items

Heavy food substances (Guru Aahara Dravya) such as

dried meat (Vallura), dried vegetables (Sushkashaka),

lotus rhizome, lotus stalk, meat of diseased animals,

boiled buttermilk (Kurchika), coagulated milk

(Kilata) , pork, beef, meat of buffalo, fish, curd, black

gram (Masha ) and pounding barley to remove chaff

and then boiling the grain in water or milk (Yav a ka )

should not be taken regularly. Curd shouldn't be taken

at night28 .

Ayurveda already noted that excess intake of food

viz. milk-ghee, jiggery food items, rice with sedentary

work, is cause of many disease i.e. diabetes, obesity, fever,

leprosy etc.

4.6 Therapeutic Diet

Diet as per diseases narrated in Ayurveda like in obesity

(Sthaulya ) and diabetes ( Prameha Chikitsa) like -

Terminalia chebula (Harad ), Triphala , honey (Madhu ),

use of butter milk (Tak r a ), Hordeum vulgare (Barley),

and Vigna radiata (Mudga) in Grahni, plies, stula,

use of pulse of Kulattha in kidney stones (Ashmari ).

To increase weight food curd, milk, ghee, meat, newly

grown wheat and rice29 .

4.7 Incompatible Diet (Virrudha Aahara)30,31

4.7.1 Desha (place) Viruddha

Use of rough and sharp substances in arid zone (Jangle )

and unctuous and cold in marshy region (Anupa).

4.7.2. Kala (time) Viruddha

Intake of rough and cold food in the winter and pungent

and hot food in the summer.

37

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4.7.3. Agni (power of digestion and metabolism)

Viruddha

Cardamom in coee, radish mixed with banana, melons

with dairy.

4.7.4 Matra (quantity) Viruddha

Honey mixed with ghee in equal quantity.

4.7.5 Satmya (wholesome) Viruddha

Person accustomed of sweet and cold but antagonism in

suitability to pungent and hot.

4.7.6 Dosha Viruddha

Use of diet, drug and behavior similar to Doshas in

properties.

4.7.7 Sanskar (mode of preparation/processing)

Viruddha

Peacock's meat attached to the castor stick, heated honey.

4.7.8 Veerya (potency) Viruddha

Sheetaveerya and Ushnaveerya substances combined

together, sh with milk.

4.7.9 Koshtha (bowels) Viruddha

When too little of mild potency and non-breaking drug

is administered in those who are having hard bowels and

while heavy, breaking and abundant one is administered

in those who are having so bowels.

4.7.10 Avastha (state of health) Viruddha

Vata vitiating substances are giving to the person who

indulge in overwork, sexual intercourse and exercise and

Kapha vitiating one in that indulged in oversleep and

laziness. it is antagonism in respect of health condition.

4.7.11 Kram (sequence/order) Viruddha

Intake of food before excreting faeces and urine and

without appetite or excessive hunger, consuming curd

at night, taking Madhura Rasa food or Dravya at the

end of meals and Tikta and Katu Rasa Dravyas (food

substances) at the starting of meals, hot water aer

taking honey.

4.7.12 Parihar (contra indication) Viruddha

Consuming cold water immediately aer having hot tea

or coee, hot things are taken aer intake of pork or cold

aer intake of ghee.

4.7.13 Upachar (treatment) Viruddha

Cold drink aer taking ghee

4.7.14 Paak (cooking) Viruddha

Cooking on damaged or bad fuel or the grains is

uncooked, overcooked or burnt.

4.7.15 Samyoga (combination) Viruddha

Sour things taken with milk, fruit salad or milk with

banana, milk with apple.

4.7.16 Hridaya (palatability) Viruddha

Taking unlike things.

4.7.17 Sampad (richness of quality) Viruddha

Immature, over mature or damaged Rasa in a substance.

4.7.18 Vidhi (rules for eating) Viruddha

Food is not taken in privacy32.

Harmful eects of incompatible foods - Disorders

aer having incompatible foods in diet can be impotency,

blindness, erysipelas, ascites, pustules, insanity, stula-

in-ano, fainting, necrosis, tympanitis, spasm in throats,

anemia, Ama Visha (harmful metabolites produces

aer incomplete digestion), leukoderma, leprosy,

Grahaniroga, oedema, acid gastritis, fever, rhinitis,

genetic disorders and even death30 .

4.8 Eight Specic Considerations for Diet

and Dietary Intake (Ashtha Aahara Vidhi

Visheshayatana)33

4.8.1 Prakriti (Original Qualities of Food)

Heavy food- black gram, pork, dry fruits, egg etc. Light

food - green gram, meat of deer, green vegetables, etc.

38 Historical Perspectives of Nutrition Science: Insights from Ayurveda

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4.8.2 Karana (Producing Specic Qualities by

Processing and Cooking of Food)

Various method and techniques of food processing;

contact of water, soaking, fermentation, churning,

peeling and contact of re etc.

4.8.3 Samyoga (Food Combination)

Honey and ghee, sh and milk, honey and aloe vera,

cereals and pulses, milk and yoghurt etc.

4.8.4 Rashi (Quantity)

Total quantity of meal (Sarvagraha), quantity of

individual ingredient (Parigraha).

4.8.5 Desh (Place of Origin of Food)

Food grown in dierent places (soil) has dierent

properties.

4.8.6 Kala (Time Factor)

Meal should be taken in proper time aer certain interval.

4.8.7 Upayogasanstha (Rules of Intake)

One should take diet when previous taken meal is

digested, not too little or not too much taken meal etc.

4.8.8 Upayokta (User)

e person should follow certain rules while taking meal.

4.9 Rules of Taking Meal (Dwadasha

Ashana Pravicharana)

• One should eat warm, unctuous food, in proper

quantity aer due consideration to the self at pleasant

place with all the favorable accessories when the

previous food is digested. One should take food

with full concentration, not too fast, not too slow,

no talking or laughing during food intake. Food

combination should be non-antagonistic34-35 .

• Agni the prime determinant of quantity of food:

Ayurveda has advocated that the quantity of diet

should be determined as per the status of digestive

power (Agni ) of an individual, "Aaharamatratu

Agnibalapekshani". To maintain the functional state

of re (Agni ), one should take heavy food as one

third or half of the saturation point and not excessive

saturation even in case of light food36 . e status of

bio-re also depends on the level of physical activity of

an individual. So, for the regulation of digestive power

and metabolism, Ayurveda has advised for some kind

of physical activity (Vyayama) in daily routine37 .

4.10 Role of Diet in Determination of

Psychosomatic Constitution (Prakriti)

and Fetal Development

Diet is an important factor that aects determination

of Prakriti of new born baby and its development.

Pumsavana Karma38 has been described for getting

the desired child as the term of measure which helps in

procreating male progeny (Pumsavana) with Karm and

Vidhi . Food plays a very important role in this process39 .

Desires expressed to eat dierent kind of meat by the

pregnant mother are indicative of following probable

characters of a child (Table 1)38 .

4.11 Diet in Pregnancy40-41

e monthly dietary regimen is advised for pregnant

women aer conception, what should eat or not to eat,

for over the pregnancy.

First month: Milk, sweet, cold, liquid diet, congenial

diet.

Second month: Sweet, cold, liquid diet, milk

medicated with Madhura drugs e.g. Kakoli.

ird month: Milk with honey and Ghrita, sweet,

cold, liquid diet, specially cooked a variety of rice

Table 1. Desires to eat dierent kind of meat by the

pregnant and the probable characters of a

child

Desire to eat dierent

kind of meat Characters of the child

Meat of iguana

(type of reptile)

Sleepiness and that whose nature

consists in eating itself or does

not express his desire.

Cow's meat Mighty and with good endurance.

Bualo's meat Brave, red eyes and excessive

body hair.

Hog's meat Sleepy, brave or bold.

Deer's meat Industrious, swift runner and

always moves in forests.

Meat of Srmara

(big deer)

Terried or anxious.

Meat of partridge Poltroon.

39

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(Shasthi ) with milk, olio prepared with rice and pulse

(Krshara).

Fourth month: Butter extracted from milk in the

quantity of one Aksha or milk with butter, cooked Shasthi

rice with curd, dainty and pleasant food mixed with milk

and butter and meat of wild animals, medicated cooked

rice.

Fih month: Ghrita prepared with butter extracted

from milk, cooked Shashti rice with milk, meat of wild

animals along with dainty food mixed with milk and

Ghrita, rice gruel ( Yawag u ), rice cooked with milk and

sweetened (Payasa ).

Sixth month: Ghrita (prepared from milk) medicated

with the drugs of Madhura group, Ghrita or rice gruel

medicated with Gokshura plant, sweetened curd.

Seventh month: As same as in sixth month, Ghrita

medicated with group of drugs (Vidarigandhadi)

like Shatavari, Kantakari, Vidarigandha, Sariva,

Prithakparnyadi etc., a sweet dish ( Ghritakhanda).

Eighth month: Rice gruel prepared with milk and

mixed with Ghrita, use of liquid diet prepared with

Ghrita and milk.

Ninth month: Meat soup with cooked rice and

fat (preferable Ghrita) or rice gruel mixed with good

quantity of fat, Harita opines in ninth and tenth month

dierent varieties of cereals should be used.

4.12 Developments in Nutrition Science

Nutrition gained recognition as a scientic discipline,

with roots in physiology and biochemistry by applying

the scientic method. Various discoveries of nutrients

have been held from year 1770 to 1968 years and the

rst discoverer, Antoine Lavoisier is known as the

"Father of Nutrition and Chemistry" aer him, many

experiments conducted to discover other nutrients by

dierent scientists, scholars and physicians. But it is

considered that the science of nutrition rediscovered by

the discovery of vitamins between two world wars42 .

In recent time the concepts of nutrition science have

been explored in some new areas like food additives,

food technology, bio fortication, food chemistry, food

safety and nutritional genomics, which have also been

implemented in dierent nutritional program and

policies for improvement of health.

e recent development in nutrition science may be

conveniently discussed under the following heads:

• Recent areas in nutrition which originated for the

improvement health, prevention and mitigation

of diseases i.e. nutraceutical, nutrition genomics

which encircles two disciplines; Nutrigenetics and

Nutrigenomics. Ayurveda, practiced for thousands of

years, which evolved around the concept of preventive

and personalized medicine by maintaining a balance

of the three biological entities, called Tridosha namely

Vata , Pitta and Kapha 43.

• Nutrigenetics: It aims to understand how the genetic

makeup of an individual aect the response to diet

and it considers underlying genetic polymorphisms44 .

Nutrigenetics embodies the science of identifying

and characterizing gene variants associated with

dierential responses to nutrient and relating this

variation to disease states.

• Nutrigenomics: It describes the use of functional

genomic tools to probe a biological system following

a nutritional stimulus that will permit an increased

understanding of how nutritional molecules aect

metabolic pathways and homeostatic control44 .

• Nutraceutical: It can be dened by functional food

that provides all nutrients in required amount and

this type of food acts in the prevention or treatment

of disease or disorder other than anemia called

nutraceutical45 . Nutraceuticals give health benets

by acting as anticancer agents, antioxidant and anti-

inammatory activity, inuencing positively on blood

lipid prole and bone protective by increasing the

action of estrogen. Nutraceuticals combine nutrition

and pharmaceuticals to mean that food extracts can

be used as preventive drugs or food supplements

examples are dietary supplement (vitamins, minerals,

ber, fatty acids and amino acids); chia, honey, sh

oil, cod liver oil, herbs; Ocimum tenuiorum (tulsi),

ymus vulgaris (ajvine ower), Petroselinum

crispum (ajmoda), Rosmarinus ocinalis

(rosemary), Coriandrum sativum (coriander),

Anethum graveolens (dill weed), Curcuma longa

(turmeric), Azadirachta indica (neem), fruit and

vegetables; Daucus carota (carrots), Mangifera

indica (mangoes), Citrus sinensis (oranges), Vitis

vinifera (red grapes), Cucurbita (pumpkin), Prunus

40 Historical Perspectives of Nutrition Science: Insights from Ayurveda

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domestica (plums), Solanum lycopersicum (tomato),

Actinidia deliciosa (kiwi fruit) etc.46 .

To spread the awareness of nutrition among

population, the people has begun many nutritional

academy, associations or institutions, nutritional

soware, health and care guide, health information

library, nutrition foundation of India, nutrition and

weight maintenance and also explained types of diet for

the healthy and when people become diseased, the diet

are - like Sippy's diet, Andersen diet, Meulengracht diet

and Bland diet for peptic ulcer patient, Karell diet for

heart disease, Portfolio diet for atherosclerosis patient

etc.47 .

4.13 Dietetics Education in India

Dietetics was introduced rstly as a subject in

undergraduate curriculum of Women's Christian

College, Madras by Mason Eleanor in 1942 in

India. Later Dorothy Pearson developed a lecture

demonstration course on diet therapy. A postgraduate

course in institution management and dietetics was

introduced in 1956 under the U.S. technical cooperation

mission and government of India project. e kitchen

units of some government hospitals were renamed as the

dietary department and the supervisor was designated as

Dietitian. In Calcutta, All India Institute of Hygiene and

Public Health started a diploma course in dietetics in

1949. is was later the venue for the birth of the Indian

Dietetics Association 196348 . Dierent association of

nutrition have been started up in the dierent countries

like Australia, Canada, South Africa, American, Japanese,

British, Indiana, Ghana, which represents and develop

the dietetic profession to contribute towards achieving

optimal nutrition and registered dieticians3 .

4.14 Establishment of Health Programs

in India

Aer the discovery of nutrients, the health programs were

established for the health improvement of the people

aer independence of India. e central government

launched national health programs for the control of the

communicable diseases, improvement of environmental

sanitation, raising the standard of nutrition, control

of population and improving rural health. Numbers

of international and foreign agencies have been set up

i.e. WHO, UNICEF, UNFPA, world bank and foreign

agencies are SIDA, DANIDA, NORAD, USAID are

providing technical and material assistance in the

implementation of the programs. In recent 12th ve-year

plan data have shown that Non-Communicable Disease

(NCD) is the main reason of nearly half of all deaths in

India49 .

e programs have been established for the

improvement of the nutritional status, to reduce

malnutrition and overcoming specic deciency

disease of the population of India, which are- Vitamin

A prophylaxis program, Prophylaxis against nutritional

anemia, Iodine deciency disorders control program,

Special nutrition program, Balwadi nutrition program,

ICDS program, Mid-day meal program, Mid-day meal

scheme, National food security act 2013 and so on50 .

5. Conclusion

Based on this discussion, we can conclude that the

awareness of diet and dietary habits play a key role in

maintenance of health, treatment and control of many

diseases. e nutrition science is still developing and

yet not scientically explored all the factors which

aect the nutrition and health. Whereas Ayurveda

has very comprehensive description considering all

the possible factors aecting the nutritional quality of

food, nutrition of body in health as well as in disease.

Ayurveda also has its unique descriptions regarding

food, dietary combinations, food processing and

cooking, rules regarding intake of nutrients for proper

nutrition, incompatible diet etc. Ayurveda principles can

be applied for development of nutrition science, which

will be helpful in improvement of health, prevention and

treatment of diseases.

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ResearchGate has not been able to resolve any citations for this publication.

• Veena Varshney
• Vandana Verma

Now-a-days non-communicable diseases and metabolic disorders have become the major concern of health care providers and researchers. The major causes of these health problems are change in lifestyle and food behavior. Ayurveda has given great consideration to diet, dietary methods along with daily and seasonal regimens and code of conduct in health and disease. Acharya Charaka has quoted that human body and disease both are the product of nutrition. The state of health depends on diet and dietetic, faulty intake of diet results in diseased state. The person who wants to be free from different diseases should eat Hitakar Aahar (suitable diet) in adequate amount on appropriate time as per the status of digestive fire. Ayurveda has given an extensive description about Diet and Dietetics under the preview of Ashtha Aahar Vidhi Visheshayatana (eight specific factors related to method of food cooking, processing, food combinations and it's intake) and Dwadasha Pravicharana (twelve rules related to method of intake of food), Viruddha Aahar (incompatible diet), Pathya (suitable), Apathya (unsuitable) diet. All the ancient literatures related to different cultures including Ayurveda have focused on diet in maintenance of health and management of diseases. But the available dietetics literatures have not acknowledged the contribution of Ayurveda scholars. The dietetic concepts described in Ayurveda, may contribute a lot in maintenance of health and management of life style disorder. The aim of writing this article is to highlight the hidden concept of the diet and dietetics to the researchers in the field of dietetics and medicine.</p

Abstract Traditional foods and dietary habits in India have been coming down from ancient vedic times. The Ayurveda contains wealth of knowledge on health sciences. Accordingly traditional foods and their dietary guidelines are prescribed in Ayurveda. There is so much similarity in ayurvedic dietetics and traditional foods that many of the traditional health foods in India can be called as ayurvedic foods. This review articles introduces the concepts of ayurvedic health foods in India and describes several traditional heath foods across various regions of India. Recommended dietary guidelines accordingly to age and health condition of consumer, and seasonal considerations are presented for each of the traditional health foods of India. In the era of globalization of population and international food trading, health conscious citizens around the globe will benefit from the wealth of knowledge on traditional Indian and ayurvedic health foods of Indian origin.

Ayurveda proclaims food and drugs are intersecting concepts that are vital for human survival and for the prevention and mitigation of diseases. Food interferes with the molecular mechanisms of an organism's "physiome". It is consumed in large amounts compared to any drug. Hence, research on its effect and interaction with genome is highly relevant toward understanding diseases and their therapies. Ayurgenomics presents a personalized approach in the predictive, preventive, and curative aspects of stratified medicine with molecular variability, which embodies the study of interindividual variability due to genetic variability in humans for assessing susceptibility, and establishing diagnosis and prognosis, mainly on the basis of the constitution type of a person's Prakriti. Ayurnutrigenomics is an emerging field of interest pervading Ayurveda systems biology, where the selection of a suitable dietary, therapeutic, and lifestyle regime is made on the basis of clinical assessment of an individual maintaining one's Prakriti. This Ayurveda-inspired concept of personalized nutrition is a novel concept of nutrigenomic research for developing personalized functional foods and nutraceuticals suitable for one's genetic makeup with the help of Ayurveda. Here, we propose and present this novel concept of Ayurnutrigenomics and its emerging areas of research, which may unfold future possibilities toward smart yet safe therapeutics.

• Mukund Sabnis

Viruddha Ahara is a unique concept described in Ayurveda. The present article deals with the critical review of Viruddha Ahara referred in terms of food-food interactions, food processing interactions. Ayurveda clearly defines that certain diet and its combinations, which interrupts the metabolism of tissue, which inhibits the process of formation of tissue and which have the opposite property to the tissue are called as Viruddha Anna or incompatible diet. The food which is wrong in combination, which has undergone wrong processing, which is consumed in incorrect dose, which is consumed in incorrect time of day and in wrong season can lead to Viruddha Ahara. The article narrates the modern perspective of Samskar Viruddha, Veerya Viruddha, Samyoga Viruddha, and so on. It also enlists a variety of incompatible dietary articles consumed in today's day-to-day life and its hazardous effects on health.

• Ekta K Kalra

Dr Stephen DeFelice coined the term "Nutraceutical" from "Nutrition" and "Pharmaceutical" in 1989. The term nutraceutical is being commonly used in marketing but has no regulatory definition. An attempt to redefine nutraceuticals and functional foods is made in this article. The proposed definitions can help distinguish between functional foods, nutraceuticals, and dietary supplements. The advantages and disadvantages of nutraceuticals are also briefly discussed.

• Stanley M. Garn
• William R. Leonard

Over the millennia various hominoids and hominids have subsisted on very different dietaries, depending on climate, hunting proficiency, food-processing technology, and available foods. The Australopithecines were not browsers and fruit-eaters with very high intakes of vitamin C; rather they were scavengers of kills made by other animals. The hominids who followed did include some cold-climate hunters of large game, but the amount of animal protein decreased with the advent of grain-gathering and decreased further with the introduction of cereal agriculture, with a concomitant decrease in body size. From what we know about food adequacy, preparation, and storage, the notion that the postulated "primitive" diet was generally adequate, safe, and prudent can be rejected. Over evolutionary time, many of our ancestors ate poorly, especially during climatic extremes, and they were often at risk for vitamin deficiencies, food-borne diseases, and neurotoxins. Until the advent of modern processing technologies, dirt, grit, and fiber constituted a large part of most early diets.

The increasing need for nutrition professionals is driven by growing public interest in nutrition and the potential of nutrition to prevent and treat a variety of diet-related conditions. Health promotion units and health services face great challenges in trying to address current and future population health issues. This review describes the present state of health nutrition practice in Italy, exploring the nature, role, and utility of training for nutrition professionals to meet the increasing burden of nutrition-related diseases. Evidence suggests that the public health nutrition workforce and infrastructures lack the necessary capacity to respond to national population needs regarding food and nutrition at many levels. This situation is aggravated by the growing prevalence of nutrition-related diseases as well as by the lack of adequate academic nutrition training. The public health nutrition infrastructures need to be enhanced, as do the education and training systems. Roles and functions in health nutrition practice need to be defined and discipline-specific competencies should be integrated.

• E N Todhunter
• W J Darby

Nutrient requirements do not change markedly with advancing age, but life style, socioeconomic status, psychologic changes, and the presence of chronic disease alter nutrient intake in the elderly. It is important to recognize and deal with these factors in attempting to correct malnutrition and in prescribing dietary treatment. Malnutrition includes a variety of disorders: undernutrition, nutrient deficiencies and imbalances, and obesity. Frequent small feedings, with nutritional supplements for patients with profound weight loss, are the initial treatment for undernutrition. Iron supplements and a diet of foods rich in iron and in promoting iron absorption are required in treating iron deficiency anemia. Management of macrocytic anemia should include specific nutrient therapy plus improvement of diet to include leafy vegetables and animal foodstuffs. Diet is an important adjunct in treating chronic diseases. Maturity-onset diabetes mellitus often can be managed by diet alone, with attention to correct proportions of fat, carbohydrate, and protein and to the decreased caloric requirements of elderly patients. The importance of continuing dietary modifications in hyperlipidemia and hypertension is well known. Although dietary manipulation in osteoporosis is not curative, a diet high in calcium and containing adequate floride and vitamin D affords maximum dietary protection against progress of the disease.

• P K Skiadas
• J G Lascaratos

Plato (5th-4th century BC), one of the most important philosophers of Greek antiquity, left a valuable spiritual heritage, compiled in his famous dialogues. His teachings extend to almost every single field of human knowledge. Among other philosophical concepts, Plato's works are imbued with the fundamental principle of moderation. This spirit is characteristically evident in his references to human diet. According to the philosopher, a moderate and thus a healthy diet, consists of cereals, legumes, fruits, milk, honey and fish. However, meat, confectionery and wine should be consumed only in moderate quantities. Excesses in food lead to ailments and therefore should be avoided. Plato considers physicians responsible for the regulation of human diet, for medicine is a science and not merely an art as in the case of cookery. The dietary pattern presented in Platonic dialogues shares many common components with the highly-reputed Mediterranean diet. As a whole, Plato's writings represent a valuable source for the study of the nutritional customs during the classical period of ancient Greece.

• B V Manyam

In pre-agricultural era, entire mankind consumed meat as early man was a hunter. Possibly he ate from plants sources which grew in the wilderness. With the advent of agriculture as an outcome of civilization, man acquired the ability to cultivate what he wanted, as by now he was influenced to some extent by the selection of the food that he wanted to eat. All this ultimately led to him taking to vegeterianism, which probably did not occur until approximately 1500 B.C. It is tried in this study to examine the concept of nutrition, balanced diet, appetite, food etiquette, food sanitation and food poisoning etc. in ancient India.

Source: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332859362_Historical_Perspectives_of_Nutrition_Science_Insights_from_Ayurveda

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